新加坡以華人佔多數，但也有1/4的人口為馬來人，是新加坡最大的少數族群。全球媒體常想像新加坡是華麗的東亞金融中心，是移植到東南亞的香港或上海；而在這樣的形象之下，馬來人似乎與新加坡顯得格格不入。
然而，新加坡一直是馬來世界的一部分。馬來群島（自蘇門答臘最北端，一路向東延伸至蘇拉威西島）包含了泰國南部，以及印尼、馬來西亞、新加坡、汶淶這幾個現代民族國家。這個區域雖然極度多元，但仍有幾項共同元素，讓我們得以將它們列入同一個「領域」。
首先，馬來群島擁有共通語言。15世紀開始，馬來語成為貿易和外交語言，連結此區的所有經濟強權，並曾是這個地區的通用語，16世紀的荷蘭博物學家弗朗索瓦．法倫泰因（Francois Valentijn）就將馬來語的角色類比為歐洲的法語和拉丁語。也難怪印尼民族派在1928年會將馬來語定為統一語言，並稱之為「印尼語」。真正的印尼語（Bahasa Indonesia）和馬來語（Bahasa Melayu）雖有差異，但兩種語言的互通性相當高，兩者都是南島語系的同一個分支（另外9個分支皆位於台灣）。有趣的是，這些語言至今仍有一些相似的字彙，代表南島語系民族的分佈十分廣泛：
此區的各個不同文化，因為可追溯至上古的信仰系統而緊緊相繫。它們在文學上亦有共通之處：從馬來半島到峇里島，潘吉（Panji）和羅摩（Seri Rama）都是深受當地居民喜愛的故事角色。
而新加坡正位於這個世界的核心地帶。1819年，英國東印度公司的斯坦福．萊佛士（Stamford Raffles）決定在新加坡建立據點之時，這裡有數百個馬來家庭和幾個華人家族。這座島嶼是柔佛廖內蘇丹國的一部份。當時，這個馬來王國正在衰落。萊佛士利用王國的繼承危機，營造出獲得蘇丹及其官員許可、在新加坡建立據點的表象。1824年，英國東印度公司與荷蘭東印度公司簽署協議，沿著馬六甲海峽和新加坡劃分雙方在馬來世界的勢力範圍；在此協議下，新加坡由英國管轄。1824年之後，英國奪去蘇丹及其官員在新加坡的權力，取得這座島嶼的完整控制權。
華人、印度人和阿拉伯人早已現身馬來世界，長達數世紀之久。然而，英國和荷蘭在馬來世界的殖民行為，改變了許多地方的人口組成，也改變了不同種族之間的關係。華人移民勞工大量湧入新加坡這個英國殖民地，及至19世紀中葉，馬來人已經成為少數族群。至今，馬來人仍然因為其少數族群地位，面臨結構性的劣勢，他們在新加坡承受的負面刻板印象也依然存在。
不少人並不了解，馬來世界的殖民遺緒是如何形塑了馬來人在新加坡的經驗與未來。就算是馬來族群之內，伊斯蘭保守主義的興起，也讓許多人忽視了那些與穆斯林無關、而相關於自身歷史和認同的重要面向。想要探究馬來人在新加坡的歷史，我們得看得更深更遠才行。因此，就讓我們從700年前開始，看看我們的第一件物品吧。
1.卡拉臂飾
1926年，禁山（Bukit Larangan，今日名為福康寧山）的發掘活動，出土了幾項重要物品，其中之一即為14世紀的黃金臂飾；約莫同一個時期，傳說中的新加坡王國就是在這座島嶼上繁榮發展。
不談新加坡殖民時代之前的歷史，必定無法完整闡述新加坡馬來人的來歷。殖民時代之前，新加坡與馬來世界的文化有著無可分離的連結，這也反映在臂飾的視覺美學之中。這只臂飾最驚人的特徵即為「卡拉」（Kala）圖案：東南亞各地的許多古代建物之中，都能見到這頭神獸的臉龐。東南亞歷史學家諾爾（Farish Noor），描述了卡拉圖案的神話起源：
在印度神話中，卡拉因忤逆而遭到濕婆懲罰，濕婆命令他吃掉自己。幸好，濕婆後來心生猶豫，卡拉也成為神殿的守護者。在柬普寨和泰國大部分早期神廟的入口，都能見到負責守衛神廟、與卡拉相似的圖案──截斷的頭、凸起的雙眼、獅一般的鼻子，張著大口、口中常會吐出繁茂的樹葉，偶爾也會有雙臂。
這只臂飾與馬來人的文字紀錄相符，證明新加坡在約莫14世紀之時，確實有個繁榮的王國存在。以馬來人的宗教歷史而言，這也是一則重要的提醒：馬來人在15世紀之後改信伊斯蘭教之前，曾是佛教徒和印度教徒。這些信仰系統的象徵，亦融人了他們的藝術之中。
2. 立體模型：1819年新加坡條約簽署
這個立體模型描繪了1819年的《新加坡條約》簽署儀式，英國也是因為這份條約，才能在新加坡建立貿易據點。場景中的人物自右至左分別為：威廉．法夸爾（William Farquhar）、「天猛公」阿布都．拉曼（Temenggung Abdul Rahman）、萊佛士爵士，以及東姑．侯塞因（Tengku Hussein）和他的兒子東姑．阿里（Tengku Ali）。法夸爾和萊佛士是英國東印度公司的代表。阿布都拉曼是柔佛廖內蘇丹國的「天猛公」，亦即王國的重要官員，負責內部安全，以及巡邏港口附近的水域、抵擋海盜和收取通行費。東姑．侯賽因是近期駕崩的蘇丹的長子，但柔佛廖內宮廷決定讓他的弟弟成為蘇丹。
萊佛士知道東姑．侯賽因想要爭取王位，承諾讓他成為新加坡和柔佛的蘇丹，前提則是簽署協議、允許萊佛士建立貿易站。東姑．侯賽因同意了；他擔心，如果拒絕此事，萊佛士可能會綁架他，並將他放逐至印度。再者，萊佛士在該區入侵並劫掠了幾個重要的港埠王國，也在當地精英階層帶起了恐懼的氣氛。東姑．侯賽因在簽署協議之時，完全知曉自己可能得面臨的潛在武力威脅。
1819年的協議中，英國僅取得新加坡河盆地周邊區域的管轄權，島嶼其他地區仍由天猛公治理，以蘇丹為名義上的統治者。此事在1824年改變；當時，英國強加另一項協議，迫使蘇丹和天猛公將新加坡的全部管轄權讓渡予英國。
1824年，荷蘭和英國同意瓜分馬來群島。英國取得馬來半島和新加坡；蘇門答臘、新加坡海峽以南及以東的所有島嶼，則屬於荷蘭的勢力範圍。荷蘭不再是威脅，英國也就不必倚賴侯賽因這個盟友，來確保新加坡管轄權的正當性。英國暫停向蘇丹支付1819年協議中的每月支付金額；新協議名為《友好及同盟條約》，蘇丹和天猛公取得最後一筆支付金後，新加坡及附近的島嶼就完全交給了英國。
在官方歷史中，1819年2月6日簽署的《新加坡條約》，是新加坡邁向獨立國家的關鍵時刻。直到最近為止，學校課本僅簡短提及新加坡的前殖民歷史，並將1819年和萊佛士標誌為新加坡歷史的開端。數個世代的新加坡人在成長之時，從來沒有學到新加坡原屬於一個在地國家。許多人也一直不知道，英國取得新加坡的基礎，就是用看似「合法」、卻其實暴力又高壓的手段，驅逐原住居民。
3. 登陸許可
這份登陸許可屬於一位來自爪哇的「anak dagang」；當時，爪哇正處於荷蘭的統治之下。它反映了馬來群島居民的高度流動性和半遊牧天性，也提醒著我們，馬來新加坡人是南島民族的一份子。南島民族分佈極廣，西至馬達加斯加，東及玻里尼西亞的最外緣。許多南島社群以海洋文化和航海傳統聞名，居住於馬來群島沿海低地和河岸的南島民族亦是如此。
馬來語的「dagang」現在譯為「商業」或「貿易」，因此，「anak dagang」的意思即為「貿易者」。然而，「anak dagang」的本意為「離家討生活的人」。這位男性會在1948年來到新加坡，亦是漫長傳統的一環。離開家鄉之島（pindah pulau）、前往其他地方（merantau），是該區許多社群的重要「通過儀式」（rite-of-passage），例如米南人。米南人為母系社群，主要聚居於蘇門答臘的米南佳保、馬來西亞的森美蘭等歷史及文化相互連結的地區，族群中的男性到達特定年齡後，就得離開村落自力更生。爪哇人、巴韋安人和武吉斯人也都在馬來群島建立了分佈廣泛的海外族群。這些文化認同，現在全都是新加坡「馬來」社群的組成元素。離家的習俗深植人心，透過詩歌永久流傳。
這份英國殖民政府發行的登陸許可，訴說著歐洲人瓜分馬來世界產生的效應。它改變了文化習俗、旅行及安身定居的意義，馬來世界原住族群的地位和認同也隨之轉變。殖民強權建立和巡守的疆界，使得新加坡和部分馬來世界成為對方的「外地」，而馬來世界的部分原住族群，則成為新加坡的「移民」。但，新加坡曾經屬於那個擁有共通文化、民眾可以自由遷徙的世界。
這個系列的下一部，我們會檢視馬來人如何在現代新加坡開拓新領域，為這座城市注入活力十足的智性生活、開創大眾文化的黃金時代。
本文為雙語呈現，以下為英語原文：
History of Malay Singaporeans in 10 Objects Part 1: History and Colonialism
Ethnic Chinese make up a large majority in Singapore, but a quarter of the population is composed of Malays, making them the country’s biggest ethnic minority. They may seem out-of-place in popular images of Singapore, which is often imagined in global media as a glitzy East Asian financial centre, a Hong Kong or Shanghai transplanted to Southeast Asia. However, Singapore has always been part of a Malay world. The Malay Archipelago - extending from the northenmost tip of Sumatra eastwards all the way to the island of Sulawesi - encompasses the modern nation-states of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and southern Thailand. Although incredibly diverse, these different lands share severel elements that allow us to consider them as being part of a similar ‘realm’.
For one, the Malay Archipelago shares a common language. From the 15th century onwards, the Malay language became the language of trade and diplomacy that bridged all the major economic powers in the region. It was the region’s lingua franca. Francois Valentijn, a 16th-century Dutch naturalist, compared Malay to the role played by French and Latin in Europe. It is no wonder that the Indonesian nationalists adopted Malay as their unifying language in 1928, whence it became known as Bahasa Indonesia. While there are differences between Bahasa Indonesia and Bahasa Melayu, the two languages are rather mutually intelligible. Both belong to one branch of the Austronesian language family; the other nine are in Taiwan. Interestingly, these languages still share similar words to this day, suggesting the widespread reach of Austronesian peoples:
The different cultures of the region are also bound by similar belief systems going back to their ancient Austronesian roots. They also enjoy a shared literature: Panji and Seri Rama are characters popular amongst inhabitants living in the area stretching from the Malay Peninsula to Bali.
In the heart of this world lies Singapore. When Stamford Raffles of the British East India Company decided to establish a settlement here in 1819, there were hundreds of Malay households and several Chinese families. The island was part of the Johor-Riau Sultanate, a Malay kingdom which was then in decline. Raffles exploited a succession crisis in the kingdom to make it look like he had the permission of the Sultan and his officials to found his settlement. In 1824, the British and the Dutch East India Companies signed an agreement that partitioned the Malay World along the Straits of Malacca and Singapore. This agreement put Singapore under British jurisdiction. From 1824 onward, the British stripped the Sultan and his officials of their authority st in Singapore, and gained full control of the island.
The Chinese, Indians, and Arabs had been present in the Malay world for centuries. However, British and Dutch colonization of the Malay world transformed the demographic composition, as well as, the relationships amongst the different ethnic groups in many places in the Malay world. In Singapore, Chinese migrant labourers flooded the British colony in large numbers. By the mid-19th century, the Malays had become a minority group. The minority status of the Malays continues to impact the structural disadvantages they face until today. Negative stereotypes about the Malays in Singapore are well and alive. There is a failure in understanding how the colonization of the Malay world has left behind legacies that have shaped the experiences and outlook of the Malays in the country. Even amongst the Malays, the trend toward increasing Islamic conservatism encourages many to ignore or overlook key aspects of their history and identity that are not associated with being “Muslim.” To approach the history of the Malays in Singapore, we need to look deeper and longer. And so, we begin, 700 years ago, with our first object.
1.The Kala Armlet
In 1926, an excavation at Bukit Larangan (known today as “Fort Canning Hill”) unearthed several crucial finds, among which was a golden armlet which dated back to the 14th century, around the time when the fabled Kingdom of Singapura flourished on the island. An account of Singapore’s Malays will not be complete without reference to its pre-colonial history, when Singapore was inextricably linked to the culture of the Malay world. This is reflected in the armlet’s visual aesthetic. Its most striking feature is the “Kala” motif: the face of a mythical creature that finds expression in many ancient structures throughout Southeast Asia. Farish Noor, a historian of Southeast Asia, recounts the mythological background of the Kala motif:
“In Hindu mythology, Kala was a disobedient being who had been ordered by Siva to eat himself as a punishment. Fortunately, Siva relented halfway and Kala was established in the pantheon as a guardian figure. His likeness – a truncated head with protuberant eyes, leonine nose, gaping jaws often spewing luxuriant foliage, and occasionally two arms – can be found guarding the entrances of most early temples in Cambodia and Thailand.”
This armlet is consistent with Malay writings that attest to the existence of a flourishing kingdom that existed around the 14th century in Singapore. It is also an important reminder of the Malays’ religious history: prior to conversion to Islam from the 15th century onwards, Malays were Buddhists and Hindus. Symbols from these belief systems were incorporated into their art.
2) Diorama: Signing of Singapore Treaty, 1819
This diorama at an exhibition depicts the signing of the treaty in 1819 which led to the establishment of a British trading settlement in Singapore. The figures are, from right to left, William Farquhar, the Temenggung Abdul Rahman, Sir Stamford Raffles, Tengku Hussein and finally, his son Tengku Ali. Farquhar and Raffles were representatives of the British East India Company. Abdul Rahman was the Temenggung of the Johor-Riau Sultanate. A ‘temenggung’ was an important official in a Malay kingdom, in charge of maintaining internal security as well as policing the waters around the ports by fending off pirates and collecting tolls. Tengku Hussein was the eldest son of the recently deceased Sultan. The court of Johor-Riau had made Tengku Hussein’s brother sultan instead of him. Knowing about his bid for the throne, Raffles promised to make him Sultan of Singapore and Johor if he agreed to sign a treaty granting him permission to set up a trading post. Tengku Hussein agreed. He was worried that Raffles would kidnap him and banish him to India if he refused. Further, Raffles’ invasion and sacking of several important port-kingdoms in the region had created a climate of fear amongst the native elites. Tengku Hussein signed the treaty fully aware of the potential threat of force that could be used against him.
The 1819 treaty only allowed the British authority over the area around the Singapore river basin. The rest of the island was still administered by the Temenggung, with the Sultan as its titular head. This changed in 1824 when the British imposed another treaty that forced the Sultan and Temenggung to cede all authority over Singapore to them.
By 1824, the Dutch and British agreed to divide the Malay Archipelago between them, with the British taking the Malay Peninsula and Singapore, while the Dutch had Sumatra and all the islands south and east of the Singapore Straits under their sphere of influence. With the Dutch no longer a threat, the British did not need Sultan Hussein as an ally to legitimize their claim over Singapore. The British withheld monthly payments the Sultan was entitled to under the 1819 treaty. The new agreement – named the Treaty of Friendship and Alliance – gave a final sum of payment to both the Sultan and Temenggung; in return, Singapore and its surrounding islands were fully ceded to the British.
The signing of the Singapore Treaty on 6 February 1819 is presented in official histories as the defining moment marking Singapore’s road to nationhood. Until recently, school textbooks gave short shrift to Singapore’s pre-colonial history and mark the beginning of Singapore history with Raffles in 1819. Generations of Singaporeans grow up without learning how Singapore already belonged to a native state. Many remain unaware that the founding of the British takeover of Singapore was the result of the dispossession of indigenous peoples by such seemingly ‘legal’ means, that were violent and coercive no less.
3) Landing Permit
This landing permit belongs to an ‘anak dagang’ from Java, which was then under Dutch rule. It encapsulates the highly mobile and semi-nomadic nature of people in the Malay Archipelago. This landing permit reminds us that Malay Singaporeans are members of the Austronesian peoples, who have a widespread distribution from Madagascar eastwards to the farthest reaches of Polynesia. Many of these societies are notable for being maritime cultures with great seafaring traditions, and those inhabiting the lowland coastal and riverine areas in the Malay Archipelago are no exception.
‘Dagang’ in Malay now translates to English as ‘commerce’ or ‘trade’. ‘Anak dagang’ means, therefore, a ‘trader’. However, ‘anak dagang’ in Malay originally referred to those who wandered away from home to seek a livelihood. This man’s journey to Singapore in 1948 was part of that long tradition. To voyage from one’s home island (‘pindah pulau’) to travel elsewhere (‘merantau’) is an important rite-of-passage in many communities of the region, such as the Minang, a matrilineal community primarily concentrated in the historically and culturally interlinked regions of Minangkabau in Sumatra as well as Negri Sembilan in Malaysia. Minang men are compelled to leave their villages to fend for themselves once they reach a certain age. The Javanese too established a widely distributed diaspora across the Archipelago, as have the Baweanese, and Bugis. All these cultural identities now make up the ‘Malay’ community in Singapore. So ingrained is this practice that it has been immortalised in poems and songs.
This landing permit, issued by the British colonial government, is a statement on the effects of European partition of the Malay world. The cultural practice and meaning of travel and settlement, and consequently, the status and identity of groups native to the Malay world, were transformed. The borders established and policed by the colonial powers made Singapore and parts of the Malay world ‘foreign’ to one another. The borders of the British and Dutch colonial states made some groups native to the Malay world ‘immigrants’ in Singapore, whereas Singapore had always been part of a shared cultural world where people moved freely.
In the next part of this series, we will examine how Malays opened new frontiers in modern Singapore, infusing the city with a dynamic intellectual life and pioneering its golden age of popular culture.
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